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Sulfate attack typically happens to ground floor slabs in contact with soils containing a source of sulfates. [2] Sulfates dissolved by ground moisture migrate into the concrete of the slab where they react with different mineral phases of the hardened cement paste. The attack arises from soils containing SO 2−
Sulfates in solution in contact with concrete can cause chemical changes to the cement, which can cause significant microstructural effects leading to the weakening of the cement binder (chemical sulfate attack). Sulfate solutions can also cause damage to porous cementitious materials through crystallization and recrystallization (salt attack). [7]
The two main classical forms are the internal sulfate attack (ISA), also known as delayed ettringite formation (DEF), already described before, and the external sulfate attack (ESA) when concrete is exposed to an external source of sulfate, such as dissolved sulfate sometimes directly present in soils or aquifers, or produced by pyrite ...
Corrosion may occur where stale sewage generates hydrogen sulfide gas into an atmosphere containing oxygen gas and high relative humidity. There must be an underlying anaerobic aquatic habitat containing sulfates and an overlying aerobic aquatic habitat separated by a gas phase containing both oxygen and hydrogen sulfide at concentrations in excess of 2 ppm.
To attempt to simplify and to stylize a very complex set of various reactions, the whole ASR reaction, after its complete evolution (ageing process) in the presence of sufficient Ca 2+ cations available in solution, could be compared to the pozzolanic reaction which would be catalysed by the undesirable presence of excessive concentrations of alkali hydroxides (NaOH and KOH) in the concrete.
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Following the attack upon its citizens by Hamas, Israel has announced a “complete siege” and has cut off water, food, fuel and electricity supplies to the region, which is home to 2.3 million ...
Here are some of the memorable images from that cloudless Tuesday morning. Sept. 11 attacks: These iconic images from 9/11 are truly unforgettable September 11 Terrorist Attacks in photos