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The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the latter part of the 19th century, [151] with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term Lumières (used first by Jean-Baptiste Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?"
Second Opium War: British and French troops entered the Forbidden City in Beijing. 1866: 31 May: French intervention in Mexico: French troops start withdrawing from the country. 1870–1940: Third Republic: 1871: 10 May: The end of the Franco-Prussian War: France's loss marked the downfall of Napoleon III and led to the end of the Second French ...
The "Philosophes" were 18th-century French intellectuals who dominated the French Enlightenment and were influential across Europe. [44] The philosopher Denis Diderot was editor-in-chief of the famous Enlightenment accomplishment, the 72,000-article Encyclopédie (1751–72). [45] It sparked a revolution in learning throughout the enlightened ...
France in the Enlightenment (1998), wide-ranging history 1700–1789 ISBN 0-6740-0199-0; Schaeper, T.J. The Economy of France in the Second Half of the Reign of Louis XIV (Montreal, 1980). Spencer, Samia I., ed. French Women and the Age of Enlightenment. 1984.
France on the eve of the modern era (1477). The red line denotes the boundary of the French kingdom, while the light blue the royal domain. In the mid 15th century, France was significantly smaller than it is today, [a] and numerous border provinces (such as Roussillon, Cerdagne, Calais, Béarn, Navarre, County of Foix, Flanders, Artois, Lorraine, Alsace, Trois-Évêchés, Franche-Comté ...
The First French Empire, officially the French Republic, [d] then the French Empire after 1809 and also known as Napoleonic France, was the empire ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte, who established French hegemony over much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. It lasted from 18 May 1804 to 3 May 1814 and again briefly from 20 ...
August 6: A French fleet and expeditionary force sails for Ireland to aid the Irish rebels, though the rebellion is already defeated. August 22: French troops under General Humbert land at Killala, in northwest Ireland. August 27: General Humbert defeats a British force at the Battle of Castlebar, and declares an Irish republic.
French intervention in the American War of Independence was also very expensive. [25] With the country deeply in debt, Louis XVI permitted the radical reforms of Turgot and Malesherbes, but noble disaffection led to Turgot's dismissal and Malesherbes' resignation in 1776. They were replaced by Jacques Necker.