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D- deformed ribbed bar, R- round / plain bar, I- deformed indented bar Ductility Class. L- low ductility, N- normal ductility, E- seismic (Earthquake) ductility Standard grades (MPa) 250N, 300E, 500L, 500N, 500E Examples: D500N12 is deformed bar, 500 MPa strength, normal ductility and 12 mm nominal diameter – also known as "N12"
For example, a tensile-tested steel bar with a square cross-section tends to develop comparatively more bands than would a bar of identical composition having a circular cross-section. [ 3 ] The formation of a Lüders band is preceded by a yield point and a drop in the flow stress.
It is obtained by gradually applying load to a test coupon and measuring the deformation, from which the stress and strain can be determined (see tensile testing). These curves reveal many of the properties of a material, such as the Young's modulus, the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength.
Tensile test of an Al-Mg-Si alloy. The local necking and the cup and cone fracture surfaces are typical for ductile metals. This tensile test of a nodular cast iron demonstrates low ductility. Ductility refers to the ability of a material to sustain significant plastic deformation before fracture. Plastic deformation is the permanent distortion ...
For an extreme example, in a tensile test a bar of steel is strained to just before the length at which it usually fractures. The load is released smoothly and the material relieves some of its strain by decreasing in length. The decrease in length is called the elastic recovery, and the result is a work-hardened steel bar.
The strength of materials is determined using various methods of calculating the stresses and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts. The methods employed to predict the response of a structure under loading and its susceptibility to various failure modes takes into account the properties of the materials such as its yield strength, ultimate strength, Young's modulus ...
Most metals, when heated, experience a reduction in yield strength. If the material's yield strength is sufficiently lowered by heating, locations within the material that experienced residual stresses greater than the yield strength (in the heated state) would yield or deform. This leaves the material with residual stresses that are at most as ...
Consider a bar of original cross sectional area A 0 being subjected to equal and opposite forces F pulling at the ends so the bar is under tension. The material is experiencing a stress defined to be the ratio of the force to the cross sectional area of the bar, as well as an axial elongation: