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First-pass metabolism may occur in the liver (for propranolol, lidocaine, clomethiazole, and nitroglycerin) or in the gut (for benzylpenicillin and insulin). [4] The four primary systems that affect the first pass effect of a drug are the enzymes of the gastrointestinal lumen, [5] gastrointestinal wall enzymes, [6] [7] [8] bacterial enzymes [5] and hepatic enzymes.
Toxicologists are tasked with determining whether any toxin found in a body was the cause of or contributed to an incident, or whether it was at too low a level to have had an effect. [39] While the determination of the specific toxin can be time-consuming due to the number of different substances that can cause injury or death, certain clues ...
Drug delivery is a rapidly growing area that is now taking advantage of nanotube technology. Systems being used currently for drug delivery include dendrimers, polymers, and liposomes, but carbon nanotubes present the opportunity to work with effective structures that have high drug loading capacities and good cell penetration qualities.
Different types of nanomaterial being used in nanocarriers allows for hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs to be delivered throughout the body. [5] Since the human body contains mostly water, the ability to deliver hydrophobic drugs effectively in humans is a major therapeutic benefit of nanocarriers. [ 6 ]
Drug metabolism is the metabolic breakdown of drugs by living organisms, usually through specialized enzymatic systems. More generally, xenobiotic metabolism (from the Greek xenos "stranger" and biotic "related to living beings") is the set of metabolic pathways that modify the chemical structure of xenobiotics, which are compounds foreign to an organism's normal biochemistry, such as any drug ...
Seeds likely used for herbalism have been found in archaeological sites of Bronze Age China dating from the Shang dynasty [10] (c. 1600 BCE–c. 1046 BCE). Over a hundred of the 224 drugs mentioned in the Huangdi Neijing – an early Chinese medical text – are herbs. [11]
Some drugs (e.g. otilimab) are being developed to block GM-CSF. [22] In critically ill patients GM-CSF has been trialled as a therapy for the immunosuppression of critical illness, and has shown promise restoring monocyte [ 23 ] and neutrophil [ 24 ] function, although the impact on patient outcomes is currently unclear and awaits larger studies.
The features need to match different chemical groups with similar properties, in order to identify novel ligands. Ligand-receptor interactions are typically "polar positive", "polar negative" or "hydrophobic". A well-defined pharmacophore model includes both hydrophobic volumes and hydrogen bond vectors.