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  2. Euler's totient function - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler's_totient_function

    In other words, it is the number of integers k in the range 1 ≤ k ≤ n for which the greatest common divisor gcd(n, k) is equal to 1. [2] [3] The integers k of this form are sometimes referred to as totatives of n. For example, the totatives of n = 9 are the six numbers 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 and 8.

  3. Publisher Item Identifier - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publisher_Item_Identifier

    The Publisher Item Identifier (PII) is a unique identifier used by a number of scientific journal publishers to identify documents. [1] It uses the pre-existing ISSN or ISBN of the publication in question, and adds a character for source publication type, an item number, and a check digit.

  4. Outline (list) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_(list)

    An integrated outline is a helpful step in the process of organizing and writing a scholarly paper (literature review, research paper, thesis or dissertation). When completed the integrated outline contains the relevant scholarly sources (author's last name, publication year, page number if quote) for each section in the outline.

  5. List of formulae involving π - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_formulae_involving_π

    where C is the circumference of a circle, d is the diameter, and r is the radius.More generally, = where L and w are, respectively, the perimeter and the width of any curve of constant width.

  6. Pi - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi

    The number π (/ p aɪ / ⓘ; spelled out as "pi") is a mathematical constant, approximately equal to 3.14159, that is the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter.It appears in many formulae across mathematics and physics, and some of these formulae are commonly used for defining π, to avoid relying on the definition of the length of a curve.

  7. Euler's identity - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler's_identity

    The computation of (1 + ⁠ iπ / N ⁠) N is displayed as the combined effect of N repeated multiplications in the complex plane, with the final point being the actual value of (1 + ⁠ iπ / N ⁠) N. It can be seen that as N gets larger (1 + ⁠ iπ / N ⁠) N approaches a limit of −1. Euler's identity asserts that is

  8. Buckingham π theorem - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckingham_π_theorem

    Although named for Edgar Buckingham, the π theorem was first proved by the French mathematician Joseph Bertrand in 1878. [1] Bertrand considered only special cases of problems from electrodynamics and heat conduction, but his article contains, in distinct terms, all the basic ideas of the modern proof of the theorem and clearly indicates the theorem's utility for modelling physical phenomena.

  9. Proof that π is irrational - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_that_π_is_irrational

    Harold Jeffreys wrote that this proof was set as an example in an exam at Cambridge University in 1945 by Mary Cartwright, but that she had not traced its origin. [7] It still remains on the 4th problem sheet today for the Analysis IA course at Cambridge University. [8] Consider the integrals