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The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the latter part of the 19th century, [151] with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term Lumières (used first by Jean-Baptiste Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?"
The long version was first published as "What Is Enlightenment" in English in The Foucault Reader. [2] It was first published in French in 1993 in Magazine littéraire under the title "Kant et la modernité " [1] and in 1994 in the fourth volume of Michel Foucault: Dits et Ecrits 1954–1988, edited by Daniel Defert and François Ewald.
Condorcet's writings were a key contribution to the French Enlightenment, particularly his work on the Idea of Progress. Condorcet believed that through the use of our senses and communication with others, knowledge could be compared and contrasted as a way of analyzing our systems of belief and understanding through 10 epochs (stages).
The philosophes (French for 'philosophers') were the intellectuals of the 18th-century European Enlightenment. [1] Few were primarily philosophers; rather, philosophes were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics and social issues.
Voltaire was one of the first authors to become renowned and commercially successful internationally. He was an outspoken advocate of civil liberties and was at constant risk from the strict censorship laws of the Catholic French monarchy. His polemics witheringly satirized intolerance and religious dogma, as
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (UK: / ˈ r uː s oʊ /, US: / r uː ˈ s oʊ /; [1] [2] French: [ʒɑ̃ʒak ʁuso]; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher (), writer, and composer.. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution and the development of modern political, economic, and educational ...
These factors include cultural changes, normally associated with the Enlightenment; social change and financial and economic difficulties; and the political actions of the involved parties. For centuries, the French society was divided into three estates or orders. The first estate, the highest class, consisted of clergy.
Madame du Deffand was an upper class French woman, who held weekly salons in Paris. Known for her intelligence and cynicism, Deffand became friends with Enlightenment writer Voltaire, with whom she kept regular contact with throughout her life. [37]