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The lysosome is commonly referred to as the cell's recycling center because it processes unwanted material into substances that the cell can use. Lysosomes break down this unwanted matter by enzymes, highly specialized proteins essential for survival. Lysosomal disorders are usually triggered when a particular enzyme exists in too small an ...
Reductive stress (RS) is defined as an abnormal accumulation of reducing equivalents despite being in the presence of intact oxidation and reduction systems. [1] A redox reaction involves the transfer of electrons from reducing agents (reductants) to oxidizing agents (oxidants) and redox couples are accountable for the majority of the cellular electron flow. [2]
Cellular stress response is the wide range of molecular changes that cells undergo in response to environmental stressors, including extremes of temperature, exposure to toxins, and mechanical damage. Cellular stress responses can also be caused by some viral infections. [1]
Cell damage (also known as cell injury) is a variety of changes of stress that a cell suffers due to external as well as internal environmental changes. Amongst other causes, this can be due to physical, chemical, infectious, biological, nutritional or immunological factors. Cell damage can be reversible or irreversible.
CMA is increased upon genotoxic stress. [26] Conversely, decreased CMA activity associates with increased genome instability and decreased cell survival. CMA is involved in the removal of Chk1, a key protein for cell cycle progression and cells with impaired CMA have defective DNA repair.
As a result, a buildup of these substances occurs within lysosomes because they cannot be degraded, resulting in the characteristic I-cells, or "inclusion cells" seen microscopically. In addition, the defective lysosomal enzymes normally found only within lysosomes are instead found in high concentrations in the blood, but they remain inactive ...
A related theory is that mutation, as distinct from DNA damage, is the primary cause of aging. A comparison of somatic mutation rate across several mammal species found that the total number of accumulated mutations at the end of lifespan was roughly equal across a broad range of lifespans. [ 49 ]
It often occurs to defective mitochondria following damage or stress. The process of mitophagy was first described in 1915 by Margaret Reed Lewis and Warren Harmon Lewis . [ 1 ] Ashford and Porter used electron microscopy to observe mitochondrial fragments in liver lysosomes by 1962, [ 2 ] and a 1977 report suggested that "mitochondria develop ...