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Industrial water heaters may reach 2000 kilowatts. Where off-peak electric power rates are available, hot water may be stored to use when required. Minerals present in the water supply may precipitate out of solution and form a hard scale on the heating element surface, or may fall to the bottom of the tank and clog water flow.
The current sensitive type has the effect of compensating the control for the temperature of the controlled heating element because the resistance of nickel chromium heating elements changes significantly with temperature. When cool the heating element has a lower resistance and dissipates more power than it does when hot.
Heating element performance is often quantified by characterizing the power density of the element. Power density is defined as the output power, P, from a heating element divided by the heated surface area, A, of the element. [5] In mathematical terms it is given as: = /
Hot water service piping can also be traced, so that a circulating system is not needed to provide hot water at outlets. The combination of trace heating and the correct thermal insulation for the operating ambient temperature maintains a thermal balance where the heat output from the trace heating matches the heat loss from the pipe.
They typically use low power heating elements, about 1 kW to 1.5 kW, and can provide hot water long enough for hand washing, or, if plumbed into an existing hot water line, until hot water arrives from a remote high capacity water heater. They may be used when retrofitting a building with hot water plumbing is too costly or impractical.
For example, space heaters use heating elements much hotter than the room being heated. In these applications, a thermostat may be better able to sense and control the temperature of the item being heated. Nevertheless, a self-regulating heating element may still be used to keep the heating element from damaging itself or other parts of the heater.