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[4] One measure of alternative fuels in the U.S. is the "gasoline-equivalent gallon" (GEG). In 2002, the U.S. used as motor fuel, ethanol equal to 137,000 terajoules (3.8 × 10 10 kWh), the energy equivalent of 1.13 billion US gallons (4.3 gigalitres) of gasoline. This was less than 1% of the total fuel used that year.
The amount of catalyst circulating between the regenerator and the reactor amounts to about 5 kg per kg of feedstock, which is equivalent to about 4.66 kg per litre of feedstock. [1] [9] Thus, an FCC unit processing 75,000 barrels per day (11,900 m 3 /d) will circulate about 55,900 tonnes per day of catalyst. [7] [6]
Phase behavior Triple point: 150 K (−123 °C), 0.00043 Pa Critical point: 514 K (241 °C), 63 bar Std enthalpy change of fusion, Δ fus H o +4.9 kJ/mol
The concept can also be applied to materials that exhibit small-scale yielding at a crack tip. The magnitude of K depends on specimen geometry, the size and location of the crack or notch, and the magnitude and the distribution of loads on the material. It can be written as: [2] [3] = (/)
where HV is the Vickers hardness in N/mm 2 (or MPa) (i.e., 9.81 x numerical HV), P is the indentation load in N (typically 30 kgf is used) and T is the total crack length (mm) after application of the indenter.
Many crack propagation equations have been proposed over the years to improve prediction accuracy and incorporate a variety of effects. The works of Head, [6] Frost and Dugdale, [7] McEvily and Illg, [8] and Liu [9] on fatigue crack-growth behaviour laid the foundation in this topic. The general form of these crack propagation equations may be ...
The world's top ethanol fuel producers in 2011 were the United States with 13.9 billion U.S. liquid gallons (bg) (52.6 billion liters) and Brazil with 5.6 bg (21.1 billion liters), accounting together for 87.1% of world production of 22.36 billion US gallons (84.6 billion liters). [1]
Assuming initial atmospheric conditions (1 bar and 20 °C), the following table [1] lists the flame temperature for various fuels under constant pressure conditions. The temperatures mentioned here are for a stoichiometric fuel-oxidizer mixture (i.e. equivalence ratio φ = 1).