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A simple cladogram showing the evolutionary relationships between four species: A, B, C, and D. Here, Species A is the outgroup, and Species B, C, and D form the ingroup. In cladistics or phylogenetics, an outgroup [1] is a more distantly related group of organisms that serves as a reference group when determining the evolutionary relationships of the ingroup, the set of organisms under study ...
For example, Easteal wanted to compare nucleotide substitution rates in four genes of four eutherian mammals. He did this via the relative rate test and then, using this data, he was able to construct a phylogeny using various methods, including parsimony and maximum likelihood. [ 6 ]
Many commonly named groups – rodents and insects, for example – are clades because, in each case, the group consists of a common ancestor with all its descendant branches. Rodents, for example, are a branch of mammals that split off after the end of the period when the clade Dinosauria stopped being the dominant terrestrial vertebrates 66 ...
Research indicates that individuals are faster and more accurate at recognizing faces of ingroup vs. outgroup members. [11] For example, researchers in a cross-race recognition study recorded blood oxygenation level-dependent signal (BOLD) activity from black and white participants while they viewed and attempted to remember pictures of ...
The term sister group is used in phylogenetic analysis, however, only groups identified in the analysis are labeled as "sister groups".. An example is birds, whose commonly cited living sister group is the crocodiles, but that is true only when discussing extant organisms; [3] [4] when other, extinct groups are considered, the relationship between birds and crocodiles appears distant.
The ancestral sequence of sequence 1 can be reconstructed from B and C, as long as at least one outgroup is available, e.g. D or E. For example, sequences B and C are different in position 4, but since sequences D and E have a C in that position, sequence 1 most likely had a C as well.
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