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However, agglomeration effects also explain some social phenomena, such as large proportions of the population being clustered in cities and major urban centers. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Similar to economies of scale , the costs and benefits of agglomerating increase the larger the agglomerated urban cluster becomes.
Urban scaling [1] is an area of research within the study of cities as complex systems.It examines how various urban indicators change systematically with city size. The literature on urban scaling was motivated by the success of scaling theory in biology, itself motivated in turn by the success of scaling in physics.
The urban environment creates positive externalities that benefit several different industries. Jane Jacobs is often credited with the idea that urban diversity and a city’s size leads to agglomeration economies. However, Marshall’s (1920) [4] discussion of urban diversity predates her work. [5]
In the mid 1970s the term was coined by urbanist Janice Perlman referring to the phenomenon of very large urban agglomerations. [17] Map showing urban areas with at least one million inhabitants in 2020. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities, a figure that rose to 47% by the end of the twentieth century.
The first theoretician of the bid rent effect was David Ricardo. It states that [ 1 ] different land users will compete with one another for land close to the city centre . This is based upon the idea that retail establishments wish to maximize their profitability , so they are much more willing to pay more for land close to the CBD and less ...
Central place theory is an urban geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and range of market services in a commercial system or human settlements in a residential system. [1] It was introduced in 1933 to explain the spatial distribution of cities across the landscape. [ 2 ]
In statistics, an effect size is a value measuring the strength of the relationship between two variables in a population, or a sample-based estimate of that quantity. It can refer to the value of a statistic calculated from a sample of data, the value of one parameter for a hypothetical population, or to the equation that operationalizes how statistics or parameters lead to the effect size ...
An urban area can be defined by one or more of the following: administrative criteria or political boundaries (e.g., area within the jurisdiction of a municipality or town committee), a threshold population size (where the minimum for an urban settlement is typically in the region of 2,000 people, although this varies globally between 200 and ...