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Edward O. Wilson called humans eusocial apes, arguing for similarities to ants, and observing that early hominins cooperated to rear their children while other members of the same group hunted and foraged. [46] Wilson and others argued that through cooperation and teamwork, ants and humans form superorganisms.
For example, territorial choruses by male lions discourage intruders and are likely to benefit all contributors. [2] This process contrasts with intragroup competition where individuals work against each other for selfish reasons. Cooperation exists not only in humans but in other animals as well.
[19] [20] For example, the sponge-dwelling shrimp depend upon the sponge's feeding current for food, termites depend upon dead, decaying wood, and naked mole rats depend upon tubers in the ground. [5] [13] [21] Each of these resources has patchy distributions throughout the environments of these animals. This means there is a high cost to ...
Cooperation is common in non-human animals. Besides cooperation with an immediate benefit for both actors, this behavior appears to occur mostly between relatives. Spending time and resources assisting a related individual may reduce an organism's chances of survival, but because relatives share genes, may increase the likelihood that the ...
An animal that exhibits a high degree of sociality is called a social animal. The highest degree of sociality recognized by sociobiologists is eusociality. A eusocial taxon is one that exhibits overlapping adult generations, reproductive division of labor, cooperative care of young, and—in the most refined cases—a biological caste system.
This process called syntrophy ("eating together") might be linked to the evolution of eukaryote cells and involved in the emergence or maintenance of life forms in challenging environments on Earth and possibly other planets. [6] Superorganisms tend to exhibit homeostasis, power law scaling, persistent disequilibrium and emergent behaviours. [7]
A human chimera, on the other hand, consists only of human cells, from different zygotes.) Examples of human–animal hybrids mainly include humanized mice that have been genetically modified by xenotransplantation of human genes. [2] Humanized mice are commonly used as small animal models in biological and medical research for human therapeutics.
The concept of "reciprocal altruism", as introduced by Trivers, suggests that altruism, defined as an act of helping another individual while incurring some cost for this act, could have evolved since it might be beneficial to incur this cost if there is a chance of being in a reverse situation where the individual who was helped before may perform an altruistic act towards the individual who ...