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An oxygen sensor (or lambda sensor, where lambda refers to air–fuel equivalence ratio, usually denoted by λ) or probe or sond, is an electronic device that measures the proportion of oxygen (O 2) in the gas or liquid being analyzed. [1] It was developed by Robert Bosch GmbH during the late 1960s under the supervision of Günter Bauman. [1]
The oil and gas industry is usually divided into three major sectors: upstream, midstream, and downstream. The downstream sector is the refining of petroleum crude oil and the processing and purifying of raw natural gas , [ 1 ] as well as the marketing and distribution of products derived from crude oil and natural gas .
This test does not only validate the cell. If the sensor does not display the expected value, it is possible that the oxygen sensor, the pressure sensor (depth), or the gas mixture F O 2, or any combination of these may be faulty. As all three of these possible faults could be life-threatening, the test is quite powerful.
In contrast, downstream prices are the prices paid by consumers at the retail level. [ 1 ] The relationship between upstream prices and downstream prices is largely explained by asymmetric price transmission .
Pipelines and other transport systems can be used to move crude oil from production sites to refineries and deliver the various refined products to downstream distributors. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Natural gas pipeline networks aggregate gas from natural gas purification plants and deliver it to downstream customers, such as local utilities.
The upstream capital costs index (UCCI), formally known as IHS/CERA upstream capital costs index, is a proprietary index of the rate of inflation seen in the costs associated with the construction of a global portfolio of 28 upstream oil and gas projects.