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In social sciences, proxy measurements are often required to stand in for variables that cannot be directly measured. This process of standing in is also known as operationalization . Per-capita gross domestic product (GDP) is often used as a proxy for measures of standard of living or quality of life .
Examples of proxies include stable isotope measurements from ice cores, growth rates in tree rings, species composition of sub-fossil pollen in lake sediment or foraminifera in ocean sediments, temperature profiles of boreholes, and stable isotopes and mineralogy of corals and carbonate speleothems. In each case, the proxy indicator has been ...
Most paleothermometers are based on empirically-calibrated proxy relationships, such as the tree ring or TEX 86 methods. Isotope methods, such as the δ 18 O method or the clumped-isotope method, are able to provide, at least in theory, direct measurements of temperature.
Waist circumference is a measurement of abdominal obesity, and it is essentially a proxy measurement for visceral body fat, adds Meghan Garcia-Webb, M.D., triple board-certified in internal ...
The blue line represents global surface temperature reconstructed over the last 2,000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores. [1] The red line shows direct surface temperature measurements since 1880. [2] Global surface temperature (GST) is the average temperature of Earth's surface.
The proloculus (the first chamber) sizes of benthic forams are affected by sea water temperature and their mean has been used as proxy for paleoclimatic investigations. [2] Mean test diameters of the planktonic foraminifer Orbulina universa have been used to interpret sea surface temperature history in Somali Basin. R-mode factor and Q-mode ...