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A water heater that maintains desired temperature by turning the applied power on and off (as opposed to continuously varying electrical voltage or current) based on temperature feedback is an example application of bang–bang control. Although the applied power switches from one discrete state to another, the water temperature will remain ...
Industrial water heaters may reach 2000 kilowatts. Where off-peak electric power rates are available, hot water may be stored to use when required. Minerals present in the water supply may precipitate out of solution and form a hard scale on the heating element surface, or may fall to the bottom of the tank and clog water flow.
They typically use low power heating elements, about 1 kW to 1.5 kW, and can provide hot water long enough for hand washing, or, if plumbed into an existing hot water line, until hot water arrives from a remote high capacity water heater. They may be used when retrofitting a building with hot water plumbing is too costly or impractical.
Heating element performance is often quantified by characterizing the power density of the element. Power density is defined as the output power, P, from a heating element divided by the heated surface area, A, of the element. [5] In mathematical terms it is given as: = /
For example, space heaters use heating elements much hotter than the room being heated. In these applications, a thermostat may be better able to sense and control the temperature of the item being heated. Nevertheless, a self-regulating heating element may still be used to keep the heating element from damaging itself or other parts of the heater.
The heating element can be replaced at the next plant shutdown. R-Control limits the temperature of temperature-sensitive heating elements. Most of the heating elements are thermistors, they increase the resistance with the temperature. At a maximum permissible temperature, the heating element has a defined resistance, which is defined on the ...