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Endorphins are released from the pituitary gland, typically in response to pain, and can act in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). In the PNS, β-endorphin is the primary endorphin released from the pituitary gland.
β-Endorphin (beta-endorphin) is an endogenous opioid neuropeptide and peptide hormone that is produced in certain neurons within the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. [1] It is one of three endorphins that are produced in humans, the others of which include α-endorphin and γ-endorphin. [2]
One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus—it is located in the brain adjacent to the pituitary gland—is to link the endocrine system to the nervous system via the pituitary gland.) Other organs, such as the kidneys, also have roles within the endocrine system by secreting certain hormones.
The pituitary gland (or hypophysis) is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams (0.018 oz) in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (diaphragma sellae).
Schematic of the HPA axis (CRH, corticotropin-releasing hormone; ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone) Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis or HTPA axis) is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three components: the hypothalamus (a part of the brain located below the thalamus), the pituitary gland (a ...
The thyroid gland is located in the front of the neck, in front of the thyroid cartilage, and is shaped like a butterfly, with two wings connected by a central isthmus. Thyroid tissue consists of follicles with a stored protein called colloid, containing thyroglobulin, a precursor to other thyroid hormones, which are manufactured within the ...
Enteroendocrine cells are specialized cells of the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas with endocrine function. They produce gastrointestinal hormones or peptides in response to various stimuli and release them into the bloodstream for systemic effect, diffuse them as local messengers, or transmit them to the enteric nervous system to activate nervous responses.
The opioid receptor types are nearly 70% identical, with the differences located at the N and C termini. The μ receptor is perhaps the most important. It is thought that the G protein binds to the third intracellular loop of all opioid receptors. Both in mice and humans, the genes for the various receptor subtypes are located on separate ...