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  2. Confounding - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confounding

    The confounding variable makes the results of the analysis unreliable. It is quite likely that we are just measuring the fact that highway driving results in better fuel economy than city driving. In statistics terms, the make of the truck is the independent variable, the fuel economy (MPG) is the dependent variable and the amount of city ...

  3. Spurious relationship - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spurious_relationship

    In statistics, a spurious relationship or spurious correlation [1] [2] is a mathematical relationship in which two or more events or variables are associated but not causally related, due to either coincidence or the presence of a certain third, unseen factor (referred to as a "common response variable", "confounding factor", or "lurking ...

  4. Controlling for a variable - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controlling_for_a_variable

    In other cases, controlling for a non-confounding variable may cause underestimation of the true causal effect of the explanatory variables on an outcome (e.g. when controlling for a mediator or its descendant). [2] [3] Counterfactual reasoning mitigates the influence of confounders without this drawback. [3]

  5. Simpson's paradox - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson's_paradox

    The paradox can be resolved when confounding variables and causal relations are appropriately addressed in the statistical modeling [4] [5] (e.g., through cluster analysis [6]). Simpson's paradox has been used to illustrate the kind of misleading results that the misuse of statistics can generate. [7] [8]

  6. Blocking (statistics) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blocking_(statistics)

    In the statistical theory of the design of experiments, blocking is the arranging of experimental units that are similar to one another in groups (blocks) based on one or more variables. These variables are chosen carefully to minimize the affect of their variability on the observed outcomes.

  7. Propensity score matching - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propensity_score_matching

    Propensity scores are used to reduce confounding by equating groups based on these covariates. Suppose that we have a binary treatment indicator Z, a response variable r, and background observed covariates X. The propensity score is defined as the conditional probability of treatment given background variables:

  8. Even Small Amounts of Alcohol Can Cause Cancer, Surgeon ...

    www.aol.com/even-small-amounts-alcohol-cause...

    On Jan. 3, the U.S. Surgeon General issued a sobering report about the cancer risks linked to something that most Americans enjoy frequently: an alcoholic beverage. In the advisory, Dr. Vivek ...

  9. Control variable - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_variable

    A variable in an experiment which is held constant in order to assess the relationship between multiple variables [a], is a control variable. [2] [3] A control variable is an element that is not changed throughout an experiment because its unchanging state allows better understanding of the relationship between the other variables being tested.