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Two levels of abstraction are employed in the definitions of latitude and longitude. In the first step the physical surface is modeled by the geoid, a surface which approximates the mean sea level over the oceans and its continuation under the land masses.
A brief history of geodesy from NASA. [1]The history of geodesy (/dʒiːˈɒdɪsi/) began during antiquity and ultimately blossomed during the Age of Enlightenment.. Many early conceptions of the Earth held it to be flat, with the heavens being a physical dome spanning over it.
Latitude ("−" indicates southern hemi-sphere) City Country Notes −0.25 Quito: Ecuador: Highest official capital. 0.3 Kampala: Uganda: 0.33 São Tomé
In geography, the antipode (/ ˈ æ n t ɪ ˌ p oʊ d, æ n ˈ t ɪ p ə d i /) of any spot on Earth is the point on Earth's surface diametrically opposite to it. A pair of points antipodal (/ æ n ˈ t ɪ p ə d əl /) to each other are situated such that a straight line connecting the two would pass through Earth's center.
Plate tectonics (from Latin tectonicus, from Ancient Greek τεκτονικός (tektonikós) 'pertaining to building') [1] is the scientific theory that the Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates, which have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago.
The 38th parallel north is a circle of latitude that is 38 degrees north of the Earth's equatorial plane.It crosses Europe, the Mediterranean Sea, Asia, the Pacific Ocean, North America, and the Atlantic Ocean.
Satellite image of a fault in the Taklamakan Desert.The two colorful ridges (at bottom left and top right) used to form a single continuous line, but have been split apart by movement along the fault.
Historical Hilgenberg globes [1] Potential reconstruction of continents bordering the Atlantic (left column) and Pacific (right column) oceans as they might have appeared at different points, going back in history, using the expanding Earth hypothesis, based on reconstructions by expanding Earth proponent Neal Adams