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The selection criteria for the critical responses for assessment is that the dose required to produce that particular response is the lowest. [1] The precursor of a biological effect can also be the response for assessment. [1] For instance, the risk factors of a disease may eventually precipitate the disease.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines NOAEL as 'an exposure level at which there are no statistically or biologically significant increases in the frequency or severity of adverse effects between the exposed population and its appropriate control; some effects may be produced at this level, but they are not considered as adverse, or as precursors to adverse effects. [5]
This level was thus identified at the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL). A NOAEL of 0.5 mg/kg was estimated by dividing the LOAEL by a three-fold uncertainty factor. The NOAEL was then divided by the standard 10-fold inter- and 10-fold intraspecies uncertainty factors to arrive at the RfD of 0.005 mg/kg/day.
The use of the letters K and L to denote X-rays originates in a 1911 paper by Charles Glover Barkla, titled The Spectra of the Fluorescent Röntgen Radiations [1] ("Röntgen radiation" is an archaic name for "X-rays"). By 1913, Henry Moseley had clearly differentiated two types of X-ray lines for each element, naming them α and β. [2]
The lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL), or the lowest-observed-adverse-effect concentration (LOAEC), is the lowest concentration or amount of a substance found by experiment or observation that causes an adverse alteration of morphology, function, capacity, growth, development, or lifespan of a target organism distinguished from normal organisms of the same species under defined ...
The 1:1:1 triplet arises from the coupling of the 1 H nucleus (I = 1/2) to the 2 H nucleus (I = 1). In NMR spectroscopy, isotopic effects on chemical shifts are typically small, far less than 1 ppm, the typical unit for measuring shifts. The 1 H NMR signals for 1 H 2 and 1 H 2 H ("HD") are readily distinguished in terms of their chemical shifts.
Ray tracing is a technique that can generate near photo-realistic computer images. A wide range of free software and commercial software is available for producing these images. This article lists notable ray-tracing software.