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Solutions to specific examples of Pell's equation, such as the Pell numbers arising from the equation with n = 2, had been known for much longer, since the time of Pythagoras in Greece and a similar date in India. William Brouncker was the first European to solve Pell's equation.
This general solution of monic quadratic equations with complex coefficients is usually not very useful for obtaining rational approximations to the roots, because the criteria are circular (that is, the relative magnitudes of the two roots must be known before we can conclude that the fraction converges, in most cases).
The resulting integrands are of the same form as the original integrand, so these reduction formulas can be repeatedly applied to drive the exponents m, p and q toward 0. These reduction formulas can be used for integrands having integer and/or fractional exponents.
In mathematical optimization, fractional programming is a generalization of linear-fractional programming. The objective function in a fractional program is a ratio of two functions that are in general nonlinear. The ratio to be optimized often describes some kind of efficiency of a system.
Fractional calculus was introduced in one of Niels Henrik Abel's early papers [3] where all the elements can be found: the idea of fractional-order integration and differentiation, the mutually inverse relationship between them, the understanding that fractional-order differentiation and integration can be considered as the same generalized ...
Otherwise, an additional linear constraint (a cutting plane or cut) is found that separates the resulting fractional solution from the convex hull of the integer solutions, and the method repeats on this new more tightly constrained problem. Problem-specific methods are needed to find the cuts used by this method.