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Fig 2: Eco-costs are based on marginal prevention costs at the no-effect-level (the costs in euro/kg of the technical measure) . The eco-costs system has been introduced in 1999 on conferences, and published in 2000-2004 in the International Journal of LCA, [3] [4] and in the Journal of Cleaner Production., [5] [6]
A species forming no soil seed bank at all (except the dry season between ripening and the first autumnal rains) is Agrostemma githago (Corncockle), which was formerly a widespread cereal weed. [citation needed] Longevity of seeds is very variable and depends on many factors. Seeds buried more deeply tend to be capable of lasting longer. [18]
Ecology deals with the energy and matter transactions of life and the Earth, and the human economy is by definition contained within this system. Ecological economists argue that neoclassical economics has ignored the environment, at best considering it to be a subset of the human economy.
Modern seed sizes range from 0.0001 mg in orchid seeds to 42 kilograms (92 lb 10 oz) in double coconuts. [7] [2] Larger seeds have larger quantities of metabolic reserves in their embryo and endosperm available for the seedling [8] than smaller seeds, and often aid establishment under low resource availability. [9]
A tropical plant community on Diego Garcia Rangeland monitoring using Parker 3-step Method, Okanagan Washington 2002. Plant ecology is a subdiscipline of ecology that studies the distribution and abundance of plants, the effects of environmental factors upon the abundance of plants, and the interactions among plants and between plants and other organisms. [1]
Agroecology is defined by the OECD as "the study of the relation of agricultural crops and environment." [2] Dalgaard et al. refer to agroecology as the study of the interactions between plants, animals, humans and the environment within agricultural systems. [3]
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Boserup argues that low intensity farming, extensive shifting cultivation for example, has lower labor costs than more intensive farming systems. This assertion remains controversial. She also argues that given a choice, a human group will always choose the technique which has the lowest absolute labor cost rather than the highest yield.