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In military engineering, earthworks are, more specifically, types of fortifications constructed from soil. Although soil is not very strong, it is cheap enough that huge quantities can be used, generating formidable structures. Examples of older earthwork fortifications include moats, sod walls, motte-and-bailey castles, and hill forts.
Section through railway track and foundation showing the sub-grade. Grading in civil engineering and landscape architectural construction is the work of ensuring a level base, or one with a specified slope, [1] for a construction work such as a foundation, the base course for a road or a railway, or landscape and garden improvements, or surface drainage.
Geotechnical engineering, also known as geotechnics, is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to solve its engineering problems. It also relies on knowledge of geology, hydrology, geophysics, and other related sciences.
A level staff, also called levelling rod, is a graduated wooden or aluminium rod, used with a levelling instrument to determine the difference in height between points or heights of points above a vertical datum. When used for stadiametric rangefinding, the level staff is called a stadia rod.
Turning is a term used when referring to moving the level to take an elevation shot from a different location. To "turn" the level, one must first take a reading and record the elevation of the point the rod is located on. While the rod is being kept in exactly the same location, the level is moved to a new location where the rod is still visible.
Civil drafters work with civil engineers and other industry professionals to prepare models and drawings for civil engineering projects. Examples of civil engineering projects are bridges, building sites, canals, dams, harbors, roadways, railroads, pipelines, public utility systems, and waterworks.
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The vadose zone (from the Latin word for "shallow"), also termed the unsaturated zone, is the part of Earth between the land surface and the top of the phreatic zone, the position at which the groundwater (the water in the soil's pores) is at atmospheric pressure. Hence, the vadose zone extends from the top of the ground surface to the water table.