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In 1965, the English statistician Sir Austin Bradford Hill proposed a set of nine criteria to provide epidemiologic evidence of a causal relationship between a presumed cause and an observed effect. (For example, he demonstrated the connection between cigarette smoking and lung cancer.) The list of the criteria is as follows: [1]
[1] [2] Hierarchy of study design, for example using a case-study, ecological study, cross-sectional, case-control, cohort, or experimental, although not always in this order is a general rule to a high "strength of evidence" of a clinical study. [3] [4] [5]
Stephen Hawking supported items 1, 2 and 4, but did not mention fruitfulness. [6] On the other hand, Kuhn emphasizes the importance of seminality. [7] The goal here is to make the choice between theories less arbitrary. Nonetheless, these criteria contain subjective elements, and are heuristics rather than part of scientific method. [8]
A large number of hierarchies of evidence have been proposed. Similar protocols for evaluation of research quality are still in development. So far, the available protocols pay relatively little attention to whether outcome research is relevant to efficacy (the outcome of a treatment performed under ideal conditions) or to effectiveness (the outcome of the treatment performed under ordinary ...
Health indicators are quantifiable characteristics of a population which researchers use as supporting evidence for describing the health of a population.Typically, researchers will use a survey methodology to gather information about a population sample, use statistics in an attempt to generalize the information collected to the entire population, and then use the statistical analysis to make ...
The hypothetico-deductive model or method is a proposed description of the scientific method. According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating a hypothesis in a form that can be falsifiable , using a test on observable data where the outcome is not yet known.
Scientific evidence is evidence that serves to either support or counter a scientific theory or hypothesis, [1] although scientists also use evidence in other ways, such as when applying theories to practical problems. [2] Such evidence is expected to be empirical evidence and interpretable in accordance with the scientific method.
Purpose in Life: High scores reflect the respondent's strong goal orientation and conviction that life holds meaning. An example statement for this criterion is "Some people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of them". [1] Self-Acceptance: High scores reflect the respondent's positive attitude about his or her self.