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The substitutions of Euler can be generalized by allowing the use of imaginary numbers. For example, in the integral +, the substitution + = + can be used. Extensions to the complex numbers allows us to use every type of Euler substitution regardless of the coefficients on the quadratic.
For Lebesgue measurable functions, the theorem can be stated in the following form: [6] Theorem — Let U be a measurable subset of R n and φ : U → R n an injective function , and suppose for every x in U there exists φ ′( x ) in R n , n such that φ ( y ) = φ ( x ) + φ′ ( x )( y − x ) + o (‖ y − x ‖) as y → x (here o is ...
The substitution is described in most integral calculus textbooks since the late 19th century, usually without any special name. [5] It is known in Russia as the universal trigonometric substitution , [ 6 ] and also known by variant names such as half-tangent substitution or half-angle substitution .
A Lebesgue-measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing G δ set and a contained F σ. I.e, if A is Lebesgue-measurable then there exist a G δ set G and an F σ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure.
In calculus, and more generally in mathematical analysis, integration by parts or partial integration is a process that finds the integral of a product of functions in terms of the integral of the product of their derivative and antiderivative.
In integral calculus, Euler's formula for complex numbers may be used to evaluate integrals involving trigonometric functions. Using Euler's formula, any trigonometric function may be written in terms of complex exponential functions, namely e i x {\displaystyle e^{ix}} and e − i x {\displaystyle e^{-ix}} and then integrated.
Fatou–Lebesgue theorem (real analysis) Fubini's theorem (integration) Hahn decomposition theorem (measure theory) Hahn–Kolmogorov theorem (measure theory) Ham sandwich theorem ; Hobby–Rice theorem (mathematical analysis) Kōmura's theorem (measure theory) Lebesgue's decomposition theorem (measure theory) Lebesgue's density theorem ...
The fence is the section of the g(x)-sheet (i.e., the g(x) curve extended along the f(x) axis) that is bounded between the g(x)-x plane and the f(x)-sheet. The Riemann-Stieltjes integral is the area of the projection of this fence onto the f(x)-g(x) plane — in effect, its "shadow". The slope of g(x) weights the area of the projection.