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It first developed a practical expression in Josiah Warren's community experiments in the United States, which he established according to the principles of equitable commerce based on a system of labor notes. Mutualism was first formulated into a comprehensive economic theory by the French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who proposed the ...
The formation of the facultative mutualism requires that the species involved all benefit from their mutual cooperation. This mutualism, though it is to the benefit of said species, is best understood as co-exploitation. Facultative mutualism occurs when species' interests align, so that each may reciprocally exploit the other to the benefit of ...
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, French socialist and theoretician of mutualism. Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labor movements, then took an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the US. [139] This influenced individualist anarchists in the United States such as Benjamin Tucker and William B ...
Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value which holds that when labor or its product is sold it ought to receive in exchange goods or services embodying "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility". [78] Mutualism originated from the writings of Proudhon.
Mutualism is an interaction between two or more species, where species derive a mutual benefit, for example an increased carrying capacity. Similar interactions within a species are known as co-operation. Mutualism may be classified in terms of the closeness of association, the closest being symbiosis, which is often confused with mutualism.
Mutualism, also known as the movement of mutuals and the mutualist movement, is a social movement that aims at creating and promoting mutual organizations, mutual insurances and mutual funds. According to the prominent mutualist Gene Costa, the movement encourages and assists the provision of mutual benefits against risks to those accessing its ...
Clarence Lee Swartz (1868–1936) was an American individualist anarchist, whose best-known work, What is Mutualism? (1927) is a book explaining the economic system of mutualism . This article is part of a series on
Mutualisms can be broadly divided into two categories. Firstly, obligate mutualism, where two mutualistic partners are completely interdependent for survival and reproduction. Secondly, facultative mutualism, where two mutualistic partners both benefit from the mutualism, but can theoretically survive in each other's absence.