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This operation extends the differential of a function (a function can be considered as a 0-form, and its differential is () = ′ ()). This allows expressing the fundamental theorem of calculus , the divergence theorem , Green's theorem , and Stokes' theorem as special cases of a single general result, the generalized Stokes theorem .
The differential was first introduced via an intuitive or heuristic definition by Isaac Newton and furthered by Gottfried Leibniz, who thought of the differential dy as an infinitely small (or infinitesimal) change in the value y of the function, corresponding to an infinitely small change dx in the function's argument x.
In mathematics, especially vector calculus and differential topology, a closed form is a differential form α whose exterior derivative is zero (dα = 0), and an exact form is a differential form, α, that is the exterior derivative of another differential form β. Thus, an exact form is in the image of d, and a closed form is in the kernel of d.
The exterior derivative is a notion of differentiation of differential forms which generalizes the differential of a function (which is a differential 1-form). Pullback is, in particular, a geometric name for the chain rule for composing a map between manifolds with a differential form on the target manifold.
In multivariate calculus, a differential or differential form is said to be exact or perfect (exact differential), as contrasted with an inexact differential, if it is equal to the general differential for some differentiable function in an orthogonal coordinate system (hence is a multivariable function whose variables are independent, as they are always expected to be when treated in ...
The exterior derivative of a differential form of degree k (also differential k-form, or just k-form for brevity here) is a differential form of degree k + 1.. If f is a smooth function (a 0-form), then the exterior derivative of f is the differential of f .
More generally, it is a differential form with values in some vector bundle E over M. Ordinary differential forms can be viewed as R-valued differential forms. An important case of vector-valued differential forms are Lie algebra-valued forms. (A connection form is an example of such a form.)
Discrete differential calculus is the study of the definition, properties, and applications of the difference quotient of a function. The process of finding the difference quotient is called differentiation .