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Horner's method can be used to convert between different positional numeral systems – in which case x is the base of the number system, and the a i coefficients are the digits of the base-x representation of a given number – and can also be used if x is a matrix, in which case the gain in computational efficiency is even greater.
Horner's method evaluates a polynomial using repeated bracketing: + + + + + = + (+ (+ (+ + (+)))). This method reduces the number of multiplications and additions to just Horner's method is so common that a computer instruction "multiply–accumulate operation" has been added to many computer processors, which allow doing the addition and multiplication operations in one combined step.
In the formulation given above, the scalars x n are replaced by vectors x n and instead of dividing the function f(x n) by its derivative f ′ (x n) one instead has to left multiply the function F(x n) by the inverse of its k × k Jacobian matrix J F (x n). [20] [21] [22] This results in the expression
The definition of e x as the exponential function allows defining b x for every positive real numbers b, in terms of exponential and logarithm function. Specifically, the fact that the natural logarithm ln(x) is the inverse of the exponential function e x means that one has = () = for every b > 0.
The global form of an analytic function is completely determined by its local behavior in the following sense: if f and g are two analytic functions defined on the same connected open set U, and if there exists an element c ∈ U such that f (n) (c) = g (n) (c) for all n ≥ 0, then f(x) = g(x) for all x ∈ U.
Note: If f takes its values in a ring (in particular for real or complex-valued f ), there is a risk of confusion, as f n could also stand for the n-fold product of f, e.g. f 2 (x) = f(x) · f(x). [11] For trigonometric functions, usually the latter is meant, at least for positive exponents. [11]
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The sequence starts with a unary operation (the successor function with n = 0), and continues with the binary operations of addition (n = 1), multiplication (n = 2), exponentiation (n = 3), tetration (n = 4), pentation (n = 5), etc. Various notations have been used to represent hyperoperations.