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The Computer Book: From the Abacus to Artificial Intelligence, 250 Milestones in the History of Computer Science (Sterling Milestones), by Simson L. Garfinkel and Rachel H. Grunspan. 2018 (Sterling) Usable Security: History, Themes, and Challenges], by Simson Garfinkel and Heather Lipford, 2014.
An abacus (pl. abaci or abacuses), also called a counting frame, is a hand-operated calculating tool which was used from ancient times in the ancient Near East, Europe, China, and Russia, until the adoption of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. [1]
History of Computing: A Chronology of the People and Machines That Made Computer History, rev. ed. Lexikon Services. ISBN 0-944601-26-X. Gunning, W.F. (1952). A Survey of Automatic Computers: Analog and Digital (PDF). Rand. Meacham, Alan D. (1961). Data Processing Equipment Encyclopedia vol.1 Electromechanical Devices. Gille Associates.
The History of Computing by J.A.N. Lee "Things that Count: the rise and fall of calculators" The History of Computing Project; SIG on Computers, Information and Society of the Society for the History of Technology; The Modern History of Computing; A Chronology of Digital Computing Machines (to 1952) by Mark Brader
Georges Ifrah (1947 – 1 November 2019) was a teacher of mathematics, a French author and a self-taught historian of mathematics, especially numerals.. His work, From One to Zero: A Universal History of Numbers (1985, 1994) was translated into multiple languages, became an international bestseller, and was included in American Scientist's list of "100 or so Books that shaped a Century of ...
History of computing hardware (1960s–present) ... Open system (computing) P. ... History of programming languages; Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals ...
A logical machine or logical abacus is a tool containing a set of parts that uses energy to perform formal logic operations through the use of truth tables. Early logical machines were mechanical devices that performed basic operations in Boolean logic .
The book describes methods of doing calculations without aid of an abacus, and as Ore (1948) confirms, for centuries after its publication the algorismists (followers of the style of calculation demonstrated in Liber Abaci) remained in conflict with the abacists (traditionalists who continued to use the abacus in conjunction with Roman numerals).