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Characteristic symptoms are increased muscle tone (dystonia, such as clubfoot) and Parkinsonian features, typically absent in the morning or after rest but worsening during the day and with exertion. Children with dopamine-responsive dystonia are often misdiagnosed as having cerebral palsy. The disorder responds well to treatment with levodopa.
Medications are used to reverse the symptoms of extrapyramidal side effects caused by antipsychotics or other drugs, by either directly or indirectly increasing dopaminergic neurotransmission. The treatment varies by the type of the EPS, but may involve anticholinergic agents such as procyclidine , benztropine , diphenhydramine , and ...
Guidelines on when to use medications vary by country. The United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommends use for children only in severe cases, though for adults medication is a first-line treatment. [316] Conversely, most United States guidelines recommend medications in most age groups. [317]
EXD is commonly observed in psychostimulant abusers as these drugs directly impact the dopaminergic transporters, increasing the extracellular dopamine levels. [ 21 ] [ 6 ] Amplified excitation of the dopaminergic systems can induce extreme fear and magnify both approach and avoidance behaviors. [ 6 ]
Morphine is useful in helping halt episodes that have started to occur. Beta-blockers are helpful in preventing the occurrence of 'sympathetic storms'. Other drugs that have been used and have in some cases been helpful are dopamine agonists, other various opiates, benzodiazepines, clonidine, and baclofen. [10]
In the UK, diagnosis is based on quite a narrow set of symptoms, and about 0.5–1% of children are thought to have attention or hyperactivity problems. In comparison, professionals in the U.S. used a much broader definition of the term ADHD until recently. [32] This meant up to 10% of children in the U.S. were described as having ADHD.
This can result in increased muscle contractility, which can play a role in the breakdown of muscle, muscle rigidity, and hyperthermia. Some antipsychotic drugs, such as typical antipsychotics, are known to block dopamine receptors; other studies have shown that when drugs supplying dopamine are withdrawn, symptoms similar to NMS present ...
Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) is a mental disorder in children and adolescents characterized by a persistently irritable or angry mood and frequent temper outbursts that are disproportionate to the situation and significantly more severe than the typical reaction of same-aged peers.