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In statistics, a proxy or proxy variable is a variable that is not in itself directly relevant, but that serves in place of an unobservable or immeasurable variable. [1] In order for a variable to be a good proxy, it must have a close correlation, not necessarily linear, with the variable of interest. This correlation might be either positive ...
Reconstructions of global temperature of the past 2000 years, using composite of different proxy methods. In the study of past climates ("paleoclimatology"), climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements [1] and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth's history.
Most paleothermometers are based on empirically-calibrated proxy relationships, such as the tree ring or TEX 86 methods. Isotope methods, such as the δ 18 O method or the clumped-isotope method , are able to provide, at least in theory, direct measurements of temperature.
A plaque-forming unit (PFU) is a measure used in virology to describe the number of virus particles capable of forming plaques per unit volume. [1] It is a proxy measurement rather than a measurement of the absolute quantity of particles: viral particles that are defective or which fail to infect their target cell will not produce a plaque and thus will not be counted.
The tables below list all of the divisors of the numbers 1 to 1000. A divisor of an integer n is an integer m, for which n/m is again an integer (which is necessarily also a divisor of n). For example, 3 is a divisor of 21, since 21/7 = 3 (and therefore 7 is also a divisor of 21). If m is a divisor of n, then so is −m. The tables below only ...
4-1 10-1 Solar cycle 16: 1923 – Aug 9.3 1928 – Apr 130 68 4-8 10-1 Solar cycle 17: 1933 – Sep 5.8 1937 – Apr 199 96 3-7 10-5 Solar cycle 18: 1944 – Feb 12.9 1947 – May 219 109 3-3 10-2 Solar cycle 19: 1954 – Apr 5.1 1958 – Mar 285 129 3-11 10-6 Solar cycle 20: 1964 – Oct 14.3 1968 – Nov 157 86 4-1 11-5 Solar cycle 21: 1976 ...
Routine health outcomes measurement is the process of examining whether or not interventions are associated with change (for better or worse) in the patient's health status. This change can be directly measured (e.g. by rating scales used by the clinician or patient) or assumed by the use of proxy measurement (e.g. a blood test result).
On the evidence of the previous and four new reconstructions that reach back more than 1 kyr, it is likely that the 20th century was the warmest in at least the past 1.3 kyr." [ 14 ] The SPM statement in the IPCC TAR of 2001 had been that it was "likely that, in the Northern Hemisphere, the 1990s was the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year ...