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The Three Rs (3Rs) are guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in product testing and scientific research. They were first described by W. M. S. Russell and R. L. Burch in 1959. [ 1 ] The 3Rs are:
All products and services have environmental impacts, from the extraction of raw materials for production to manufacture, distribution, use and disposal. Following the waste hierarchy will generally lead to the most resource-efficient and environmentally sound choice but in some cases refining decisions within the hierarchy or departing from it can lead to better environmental outcomes.
The 3Rs have a broader scope than simply encouraging alternatives to animal testing, but aim to improve animal welfare and scientific quality where the use of animals can not be avoided. These 3Rs are now implemented in many testing establishments worldwide and have been adopted by various pieces of legislation and regulations. [2]
The skills themselves are alluded to in St. Augustine's Confessions: Latin: ...legere et scribere et numerare discitur 'learning to read, and write, and do arithmetic'. [3]
The 3Rs were developed by two men named Russell and Burch to regulate more humane animal research. The 3Rs stand for replacement, reduction, and refinement. Full replacement aims to substitute the use of animals that are exploited for research. There is also partial replacement which can include animals in operations where they do not suffer much.
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Guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in testing are the Three Rs (3Rs) first described by Russell and Burch in 1959. [6] These principles are now followed in many testing establishments worldwide. Replacement refers to the preferred use of non-animal methods over animal methods whenever it is possible to achieve the same ...
However, despite growing awareness of the importance of sleep, the science behind the factors that disrupt it—particularly the role of smartphones—remains unclear to many.