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Bertram R. Forer (24 October 1914 – 6 April 2000) was an American psychologist best known for describing the Forer effect, sometimes referred to as subjective validation. [ 1 ] Early life
The term subjective validation first appeared in the 1980 book The Psychology of the Psychic by David F. Marks and Richard Kammann. [4] Subjective validation describes the tendency of people to believe or accept an idea or statement if it presents to them in a personal and positive way. [5]
Most of these methods are considered to be particularly unobtrusive, since the processes that they study are generally natural (i.e. eye gazing), and do not interfere with the decision process. [4] Process-tracing in psychology can consist of various methods, namely observational, experimental, physiological, or neuroscientific. [5]
In this example, the first row lists the trait being assessed (i.e., depression or anxiety) as well as the method of assessing this trait (i.e., self-reported questionnaire versus an interview). The term heteromethod indicates this cell reports the correlation between two separate methods.
A common solution to reactivity is unobtrusive research that can replace or augment reactive research. Unobtrusive research refers to methods in which the researchers are able to obtain information without interfering in the research itself. Results gathered from unobtrusive methods tend to have very high test-retest reliability. [8]
For example, in order to test the convergent validity of a measure of self-esteem, a researcher may want to show that measures of similar constructs, such as self-worth, confidence, social skills, and self-appraisal are also related to self-esteem, whereas non-overlapping factors, such as intelligence, should not relate.
For example, it is possible to explain implicit partisanship or implicit egotism in terms of a halo effect, however these concepts will be discussed more in subsequent sections. Pioneered by Edward Thorndike in 1920, the halo effect is the judgement of attribute "A" being influenced by a known but irrelevant attribute "B".
Unobtrusive manipulations and measures: Conceal independent and dependent measures, so they do not provide clues about the research hypothesis. Have self-discipline : The experimenter must display self-discipline to obtain a valid inquiry.