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In mathematics and computer programming, exponentiating by squaring is a general method for fast computation of large positive integer powers of a number, or more generally of an element of a semigroup, like a polynomial or a square matrix. Some variants are commonly referred to as square-and-multiply algorithms or binary exponentiation.
Exponentiation with negative exponents is defined by the following identity, which holds for any integer n and nonzero b: =. [1] Raising 0 to a negative exponent is undefined but, in some circumstances, it may be interpreted as infinity (). [26]
For example, 9 is a square number, since it equals 3 2 and can be written as 3 × 3. The usual notation for the square of a number n is not the product n × n, but the equivalent exponentiation n 2, usually pronounced as "n squared". The name square number comes from the name of the shape.
There is no standard notation for tetration, though Knuth's up arrow notation and the left-exponent are common. Under the definition as repeated exponentiation, n a {\displaystyle {^{n}a}} means a a ⋅ ⋅ a {\displaystyle {a^{a^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{a}}}}}} , where n copies of a are iterated via exponentiation, right-to-left, i.e. the application ...
The square of an integer may also be called a square number or a perfect square. In algebra, the operation of squaring is often generalized to polynomials, other expressions, or values in systems of mathematical values other than the numbers. For instance, the square of the linear polynomial x + 1 is the quadratic polynomial (x + 1) 2 = x 2 ...
Exponential functions with bases 2 and 1/2. In mathematics, the exponential function is the unique real function which maps zero to one and has a derivative equal to its value. . The exponential of a variable is denoted or , with the two notations used interchangeab
In mathematics, the matrix exponential is a matrix function on square matrices analogous to the ordinary exponential function. It is used to solve systems of linear differential equations. In the theory of Lie groups, the matrix exponential gives the exponential map between a matrix Lie algebra and the corresponding Lie group.
Another geometric proof proceeds as follows: We start with the figure shown in the first diagram below, a large square with a smaller square removed from it. The side of the entire square is a, and the side of the small removed square is b. The area of the shaded region is . A cut is made, splitting the region into two rectangular pieces, as ...