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Citrate ion Malate ion. The citrate-malate shuttle is a series of chemical reactions, commonly referred to as a biochemical cycle or system, that transports acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrial matrix across the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes for fatty acid synthesis. [1]
The two main systems in humans are the glycerol phosphate shuttle and the malate-aspartate shuttle. The malate/a-ketoglutarate antiporter functions move electrons while the aspartate/glutamate antiporter moves amino groups. This allows the mitochondria to receive the substrates that it needs for its functionality in an efficient manner. [1]
In addition to pyruvate, alpha-ketoglutarate may also be imported. At various points, the intermediate product is exported to the cytosol for additional transformations and then re-imported. Three specific pyruvate cycles are generally considered, [ 1 ] each named for the principal molecule exported from the mitochondrion: malate, citrate, and ...
1.2 Recruited reaction steps of the citric acid cycle and malate aspartate shuttle. 1.3 Reaction steps from malate to pyruvate and ... CoA + H 2 O → citrate ...
Illustration of the malate–aspartate shuttle pathway. The malate–aspartate shuttle (sometimes simply the malate shuttle) is a biochemical system for translocating electrons produced during glycolysis across the semipermeable inner membrane of the mitochondrion for oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes.
The citric acid cycle involves acyl-CoA, pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, citrate, isocitrate, α-ketoglutarate, succinyl-CoA, fumarate, succinate, L-malate, and oxaloacetate. [2] The urea cycle makes use of L-ornithine, carbamoyl phosphate, and L-citrulline. [4] The electron transport chain oxidizes coenzymes NADH and FADH2.
BMW and Yamaha Motor have invested in U.S.-based rare earths processing startup Phoenix Tailings, the latest move by manufacturers to boost production of the strategic metals outside of China.
[16] [21] [22] It is believed low levels of citrate in the cytosol and high levels of citrate in the mitochondria caused by the impaired citrate transport plays a role in the disease. [16] [22] In addition, increased expression of the tricarboxylate transport protein has been linked to cancer [11] [23] [24] and the production of inflammatory ...