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Evidence shows that vegans who are not taking vitamin B 12 supplements do not consume sufficient B 12 and often have abnormally low blood concentrations of vitamin B 12. [75] This is because, unless fortified, plant foods do not contain reliable amounts of active vitamin B 12. Vegans are advised to adopt one of the following dietary options: [76]
Vitamin B 12 supplements are available as single or multivitamin tablets. Pharmaceutical preparations of vitamin B 12 may be given by intramuscular injection. [6] [62] Since there are few non-animal sources of the vitamin, vegans are advised to consume a dietary supplement or fortified foods for B 12 intake, or risk serious health consequences. [6]
Vegans, and to a lesser degree vegetarians, are at risk for B 12 deficiency if they do not consume either a dietary supplement or vitamin-fortified foods. Children are at a higher risk for B 12 deficiency due to inadequate dietary intake, as they have fewer vitamin stores and a relatively larger vitamin need per calorie of food intake. [136]
Pregnant and lactating vegetarian mothers—and breastfed infants if the vegetarian mother's diet is not supplemented—should also use supplements, whether B 12-pills, B 12-injections, or B 12-fortified foods, if they don't get adequate vitamin B 12 from animal products like eggs or dairy. Eggs are a source of vitamin B 12 for vegetarians.
The UK National Health Service (NHS) recommends that people at risk of vitamin D deficiency, breast-fed babies, formula-fed babies taking less than 500 ml/day, and children aged 6 months to 4 years, should take daily vitamin D supplements throughout the year to ensure sufficient intake. [56]
Animal-source foods are a diverse group of foods that are rich in bioavailable nutrients including calcium, iron, zinc, vitamins B12, vitamin D, choline, DHA, and EPA. [11] Animal-source and plant-based foods have complimentary nutrient profiles and balanced diets containing both reduce the risk of nutritional deficiencies. [ 11 ]
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DHA is widely used as a food supplement. It was first used primarily in infant formulas. [41] In 2019, the US Food and Drug Administration published qualified health claims for DHA. [42] Some manufactured DHA is a vegetarian product extracted from algae, and it competes on the market with fish oil that contains DHA and other omega−3s such as ...