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Air–fuel equivalence ratio, λ (lambda), is the ratio of actual AFR to stoichiometry for a given mixture. λ = 1.0 is at stoichiometry, rich mixtures λ < 1.0, and lean mixtures λ > 1.0. There is a direct relationship between λ and AFR. To calculate AFR from a given λ, multiply the measured λ by the
Failure rate is the frequency with which any system or component fails, expressed in failures per unit of time. It thus depends on the system conditions, time interval, and total number of systems under study. [1]
Using the O2 sensor signal, the ECU can operate the engine with an air–fuel ratio very close to 14.7:1, which is the ideal operating mixture for a three way catalyst to be effective. [3] Robert Bosch GmbH introduced the first automotive lambda sensor in 1976, [2] and it was first used by Volvo and Saab in that year. The sensors were ...
Quantity (common name/s) (Common) symbol/s Defining equation SI units Dimension Number of atoms N = Number of atoms remaining at time t. N 0 = Initial number of atoms at time t = 0
Flux F through a surface, dS is the differential vector area element, n is the unit normal to the surface. Left: No flux passes in the surface, the maximum amount flows normal to the surface.
Quantity (common name/s) (Common) symbol/s Defining equation SI unit Dimension Temperature gradient: No standard symbol K⋅m −1: ΘL −1: Thermal conduction rate, thermal current, thermal/heat flux, thermal power transfer
Bytes B through I provide 16-bit integers indicating the temperatures of the sensors. The temperature values are interpreted in degrees Celsius in the range -40 to 6513.5 (scale 0.1), using the usual (+) / formula (MSB is A, LSB is B). Only values for which the corresponding sensor is supported are meaningful.
Most charts or tables indicate the type of friction factor, or at least provide the formula for the friction factor with laminar flow. If the formula for laminar flow is f = 16 / Re , it is the Fanning factor f, and if the formula for laminar flow is f D = 64 / Re , it is the Darcy–Weisbach factor f D.