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Such states of matter are studied in condensed matter physics. In extreme conditions found in some stars and in the early universe, atoms break into their constituents and matter exists as some form of degenerate matter or quark matter. Such states of matter are studied in high-energy physics.
Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by different forces can also be considered different states of matter. Superfluids (like Fermionic condensate) and the quark–gluon plasma are examples. In a chemical equation, the state of matter of the chemicals may be shown as (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, and (g) for gas.
The equation of state for ordinary non-relativistic 'matter' (e.g. cold dust) is =, which means that its energy density decreases as =, where is a volume.In an expanding universe, the total energy of non-relativistic matter remains constant, with its density decreasing as the volume increases.
Phase transitions commonly refer to when a substance transforms between one of the four states of matter to another. At the phase transition point for a substance, for instance the boiling point, the two phases involved - liquid and vapor, have identical free energies and therefore are equally likely to exist.
Substances in the chain-melted state display properties of both a solid and a liquid. [3] [7] The co-author of a study regarding the chain-melted state, Andreas Hermann, stated that if the matter were hypothetically to be handled by a person, it would be like holding a wet sponge that is leaking water, while the sponge itself is actually made of water. [8]
2000 – CERN announced quark-gluon plasma, a new phase of matter. [28] 2023 – Physicists from US and China discovered a new state of matter called the chiral bose-liquid state [29] 2024 – Harvard researchers working with Quantinuum announced a new phase of matter non-Abelian topological order [30]
A hidden state of matter is a state of matter which cannot be reached under ergodic conditions, and is therefore distinct from known thermodynamic phases of the material. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Examples exist in condensed matter systems, and are typically reached by the non-ergodic conditions created through laser photo excitation.
In the physical sciences, a phase is a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and (often) mechanically separable. In a system consisting of ice and water in a glass jar, the ice cubes are one phase, the water is a second phase, and the humid air is a third phase over the ice and water.