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The Indian indenture system was a system of indentured servitude, by which more than 1.6 million workers [1] from British India were transported to labour in European colonies, as a substitute for slave labour, following the abolition of the trade in the early 19th century.
"Tea Plantations and Colonial Rule in India" by Tirthankar Roy [1] Labor and the Economy of Assam: 1826-1920" by Amalendu Guha [2] "The Colonial Economy and the Beginnings of Modern South Asia" by Indrajit Ray [3] Brown, Judith M. Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy. Oxford University Press, 1985.
Between 1879 and 1916, a total of 42 ships made 87 voyages, carrying Indian indentured labourers to Fiji. Initially the ships brought labourers from Calcutta, but from 1903 all ships except two also brought labourers from Madras and Mumbai. A total of 60,965 passengers left India but only 60,553 (including births at sea) arrived in Fiji.
The institution represented unfree labor with fewer rights, but "the supposed slavery in [ancient] India was of mild character and limited extent" like Babylonian and Hebrew slavery, in contrast to the Hellenic world. [32] The "unfree labor" could be of two types in ancient India: the underadsatva and the ahitaka, states Ishay. [32]
Indo-Guyanese or Guyanese Indians, are Guyanese nationals of Indian origin who trace their ancestry to India and the wider subcontinent. They are the descendants of indentured servants and settlers who migrated from India beginning in 1838, and continuing during the British Raj. They are a subgroup of Indo-Caribbean people.
Indentured servitude of Irish and other European peoples occurred in seventeenth-century Barbados, and was fundamentally different from enslavement: an enslaved African's body was owned, as were the bodies of their children, while the labour of indentured servants was under contractual ownership of another person.
India's decades-old labour laws are largely focused on blue-collar workers, leaving others vulnerable to workplace abuse such as punishing work schedules and summary dismissals, unions say.
Indentured Indians wishing to return to India were given two options. One was travel at their own expense and the other free of charge but subject to certain conditions. To obtain free passage back to India, labourers had to have been above age twelve upon arrival, completed at least five years of service and lived in Fiji for a total of ten ...