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Initially, paper was ruled by hand, sometimes using templates. [1] Scribes could rule their paper using a "hard point," a sharp implement which left embossed lines on the paper without any ink or color, [2] or could use "metal point," an implement which left colored marks on the paper, much like a graphite pencil, though various other metals were used.
There are four common types of loose leaves: (1) ruled paper (ja: 横罫. North American sizes include wide ruled, college ruled and narrow ruled, the line height of which are approximately 11 ⁄ 32, 9 ⁄ 32 and 1 ⁄ 4 inch (8.7, 7.1 and 6.4 mm), respectively, attending to different people's needs.
The French monarchy, along with the Kingdom of France itself, was abolished on 21 September 1792, when the First French Republic was proclaimed. The Revolution did away with the concept of ownership of political entities by individuals. As such the French Republic was a unitary state rather than a mosaic of vassals or "semi-states".
Recto is the "right" or "front" side and verso is the "left" or "back" side when text is written or printed on a leaf of paper (folium) in a bound item such as a codex, book, broadsheet, or pamphlet. In double-sided printing , each leaf has two pages – front and back.
By these means he consolidated a system of absolute monarchical rule in France that endured until the French Revolution. However, Louis XIV's long reign saw France involved in many wars that drained its treasury. [36] The French-dominated League of the Rhine fought against the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Saint Gotthard in 1664. [36]
In the 19th century, starting with the Occupation of Algeria in 1830, France began to establish a new empire in Africa and Southeast Asia. The following is a list of all countries that were part of the French colonial empires from 1534; 491 years ago () to the present, either entirely or in part, either under French sovereignty or as mandate.
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The French economy was in continual crisis during the Directory. At the beginning, the treasury was empty; the paper money, the Assignat, had fallen to a fraction of its value, and prices soared. The Directory stopped printing assignats and restored the value of the money, but this caused a new crisis; prices and wages fell, and economic ...