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About 30% of women over age 45 in developed nations are affected by urinary incontinence. [46] The rate of obstetrical fistulae is much lower in places that discourage early marriage, encourage and provide general education for women, and grant women access to family planning and skilled medical teams to assist during childbirth. [57]
Diaphragms should also be re-fitted after any pregnancy of 14 weeks or longer. [10] Full-term vaginal delivery especially will tend to increase the size diaphragm a woman needs, although the changes to the pelvic floor during pregnancy mean even women who experience second-trimester miscarriage, or deliver by C-section, should be refitted.
Dilation and evacuation can be offered for the management of second trimester miscarriage if skilled providers are available. [6] Some women choose D&E over labor induction for a second trimester loss because it can be a scheduled surgical procedure, offering predictability over labor induction, or because they find it emotionally easier than undergoing labor and delivery.
The diagnostic criterion for pre-eclampsia is high blood pressure, occurring after 20 weeks gestation or during the second half of pregnancy. [1] Most often it occurs during the 3rd trimester of pregnancy and may occur before, during, or after delivery. [1] The seizures are of the tonic–clonic type and typically last about a minute. [1]
Women over the age of 60 years are twice as likely as men to experience incontinence; one in three women over the age of 60 years are estimated to have bladder control problems. [74] One reason why women are more affected is the weakening of pelvic floor muscles by pregnancy .
Forceps had a profound influence on obstetrics as it allowed for the speedy delivery of the baby in cases of difficult or obstructed labour. Over the course of the 19th century, many practitioners attempted to redesign the forceps, so much so that the Royal College of Obstetrics and Gynecologists' collection has several hundred examples. [15]