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Spores form a part of the life cycles of a diverse range of organisms such as many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Kingdom Fungi), the set of early genes activating sporulation is induced by Ime1 (Inducer of Meiosis 1) and a regulator of middle genes is Ndt80p. [4]
Plant spores are most obvious in the reproduction of ferns and mosses. However, they also exist in flowering plants where they develop hidden inside the flower. For example, the pollen grains of flowering plants develop out of microspores produced in the anthers. Reproductive spores grow into multicellular haploid individuals or sporelings.
A 2009 study compared the density of spores found in soil (about 10 6 spores per gram) to that found in human feces (about 10 4 spores per gram). The number of spores found in the human gut was too high to be attributed solely to consumption through food contamination. [15] In some bee habitats, B. subtilis appears in the gut flora of honey ...
An endospore is a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by some bacteria in the phylum Bacillota. [1] [2] The name "endospore" is suggestive of a spore or seed-like form (endo means 'within'), but it is not a true spore (i.e., not an offspring). It is a stripped-down, dormant form to which the bacterium can reduce itself.
Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, fungi and protozoa. [2] They were thought to have appeared as early as the mid-late Ordovician period as an adaptation of early land plants. [3] Bacterial spores are not part of a sexual cycle, but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions. [4]
Microscopic photo of spores (in red) of Selaginella. The large three spores at the top are megaspores whereas the numerous smaller red spores at the bottom are microspores. Megaspores, also called macrospores, are a type of spore that is present in heterosporous plants. These plants have two spore types, megaspores and microspores.
Spiral bacteria are another major bacterial cell morphology. [2] [30] [31] [32] Spiral bacteria can be sub-classified as spirilla, spirochetes, or vibrios based on the number of twists per cell, cell thickness, cell flexibility, and motility. [33] Bacteria are known to evolve specific traits to survive in their ideal environment. [34]
There is evidence that plants and endophytes engage in communication with each other that can aid symbiosis. For example, plant chemical signals have been shown to activate gene expression in endophytes. One example of this plant-endosymbiont interaction occurs between dicotyledonous plants in the Convolvulaceae and clavicipitaceous fungi.