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In plant immunology, the hypersensitive response (HR) is a mechanism used by plants to prevent the spread of infection by microbial pathogens.HR is characterized by the rapid death of cells in the local region surrounding an infection and it serves to restrict the growth and spread of pathogens to other parts of the plant.
Active site of T. thermophilus hpaB, showing hydrogen bonding of hpaB catalytic residues to 4-hydroxyphenylacetate and to the peroxide bound to FADH 2. (Note: this structure was generated using oxidized FAD in place of FADH 2; the magenta sphere representing oxygen here is actually a water molecule believed to occupy the space oxygen does when the flavin hydroxyperoxide is present.
The SAM and HPA axes are regulated by several brain regions, including the limbic system, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hypothalamus, and stria terminalis. [3] Through these mechanisms, stress can alter memory functions, reward, immune function, metabolism, and susceptibility to diseases. [3] [4]
Schematic of the HPA axis (CRH, corticotropin-releasing hormone; ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone) Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis or HTPA axis) is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three components: the hypothalamus (a part of the brain located below the thalamus), the pituitary gland (a ...
A mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK or MAP kinase) is a type of serine/threonine-specific protein kinases involved in directing cellular responses to a diverse array of stimuli, such as mitogens, osmotic stress, heat shock and proinflammatory cytokines.
The epigenetics of plant growth and development refers to the heritable changes in gene expression that occur without alterations to the DNA sequence, influencing processes in plants such as seed germination, flowering, and stress responses through mechanisms like DNA methylation, histone modification, and chromatin remodeling.
Ethylene chemical structure. Ethylene signaling pathway is a signal transduction in plant cells to regulate important growth and developmental processes. [1] [2] Acting as a plant hormone, the gas ethylene is responsible for promoting the germination of seeds, ripening of fruits, the opening of flowers, the abscission (or shedding) of leaves and stress responses. [3]
For example, acetylation has been seen to increase the activity of some activators through mechanisms such as increasing DNA-binding affinity. [1] On the other hand, ubiquitination decreases the activity of activators, as ubiquitin marks proteins for degradation after they have performed their respective functions.