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Misinformation can also often be observed as news events are unfolding and questionable or unverified information fills information gaps. Even if later retracted, false information can continue to influence actions and memory. [26] Rumors are unverified information not attributed to any particular source and may be either true or false. [27]
Higdon has also argued that the definition of fake news has been applied too narrowly to select mediums and political ideologies. [21] While most definitions focus strictly on content accuracy and format, current research indicates that the rhetorical structure of the content might play a significant role in the perception of fake news. [22]
Confounding is defined in terms of the data generating model. Let X be some independent variable, and Y some dependent variable.To estimate the effect of X on Y, the statistician must suppress the effects of extraneous variables that influence both X and Y.
As a result of confusion over the meaning of factoid, some English-language style and usage guides discourage its use. [9] William Safire in his "On Language" column advocated the use of the word factlet instead of factoid to express a brief interesting fact as well as a "little bit of arcana" but did not explain how adopting this new term would alleviate the ongoing confusion over the ...
It developed into a list of all supercentenarians whose lifespan had been verified by at least three documents, in a standardized process, according to the norms of modern longevity research. [citation needed] Many unverified cases ("claims" or "traditions") have been controverted by reliable sources. Taking reliable demographic data into ...
Research has shown that fact-checking has limits, and can even backfire, [89] which is when a correction increases the their belief in the misconception. [90] One reason is that it can be interpreted as an argument from authority , leading to resistance and hardening beliefs, "because identity and cultural positions cannot be disproved."
Circular reporting occurs in a variety of fields, including intelligence gathering, [2] journalism, and scholarly research. It is of particular concern in military intelligence because the original source has a higher likelihood of wanting to pass on misinformation, and because the chain of reporting is more prone to being obscured. It is also ...
Recent empirical research has shown that individuals who indulge in pseudoscientific beliefs generally show lower evidential criteria, meaning they often require significantly less evidence before coming to conclusions. This can be coined as a 'jump-to-conclusions' bias that can increase the spread of pseudoscientific beliefs. [10]