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Distance can be defined as the separation between the self and other instances like persons, events, knowledge, or time. [1] Psychological distance was first defined in Trope and Liberman's Construal Level Theory (CLT). [2] However, Trope and Liberman only identified temporal distance as a separator.
Perceptions are affected by construal level theory in almost all aspects of psychology. [2] Strong relationships and similarities have been found between different types of psychological distances. These include temporal, spatial, personal, and social distance. [2] When distance on one of these levels increases, the other levels also increase.
The tau effect is a spatial perceptual illusion that arises when observers judge the distance between consecutive stimuli in a stimulus sequence. When the distance from one stimulus to the next is constant, and the time elapsed from one stimulus to the next is also constant, subjects tend to judge the distances, correctly, as equal.
The Kappa effect or perceptual time dilation [55] is a form of temporal illusion verifiable by experiment. [56] The temporal duration between a sequence of consecutive stimuli is thought to be relatively longer or shorter than its actual elapsed time, due to the spatial/auditory/tactile separation between each consecutive stimuli.
When the temporal separation was constant and the spatial separation between the dots varied, they observed the kappa effect, which follows the constant velocity hypothesis. However, when both the temporal and spatial separation between the dots varied, they failed to observe the response pattern that the constant velocity hypothesis predicts.
The probability of recall (y-axis) is plotted against the lag, or separation between subsequently recalled words. [2] For example, if two items A and B are learned together, when cued with B, A is retrieved and vice versa due to their temporal contiguity, although there will be a stronger forward association (when cued with A, B is recalled). [2]
Spatial cognition can be seen from a psychological point of view, meaning that people's behaviour within that space is key. When people behave in space, they use cognitive maps, the most evolved form of spatial cognition. When using cognitive maps, information about landmarks and the routes between landmarks are stored and used. [2]
Werner and Kaplan's work was later expanded by the pioneer in deaf-blind patient therapy, Dr. Van Dijk, and later refined by the work of Dr. Susan Bruce. [3] [4] Primarily of use in working with deaf-blind patients, distancing gradually leads the subject through a course of physical interactions which encourage the patients to respond.