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Many works of art are claimed to have been designed using the golden ratio. However, many of these claims are disputed, or refuted by measurement. [1] The golden ratio, an irrational number, is approximately 1.618; it is often denoted by the Greek letter φ .
The psychologist Adolf Zeising noted that the golden ratio appeared in phyllotaxis and argued from these patterns in nature that the golden ratio was a universal law. [92] Zeising wrote in 1854 of a universal orthogenetic law of "striving for beauty and completeness in the realms of both nature and art".
The golden spiral is a logarithmic spiral that grows outward by a factor of the golden ratio for every 90 degrees of rotation (pitch angle about 17.03239 degrees). It can be approximated by a "Fibonacci spiral", made of a sequence of quarter circles with radii proportional to Fibonacci numbers .
Golden spirals are self-similar. The shape is infinitely repeated when magnified. In geometry, a golden spiral is a logarithmic spiral whose growth factor is φ, the golden ratio. [1] That is, a golden spiral gets wider (or further from its origin) by a factor of φ for every quarter turn it makes.
Other scholars argue that until Pacioli's work in 1509, the golden ratio was unknown to artists and architects. [53] For example, the height and width of the front of Notre-Dame of Laon have the ratio 8/5 or 1.6, not 1.618. Such Fibonacci ratios quickly become hard to distinguish from the golden ratio. [54]
Adolf Zeising (24 September 1810 – 27 April 1876) was a German psychologist, whose main interests were mathematics and philosophy.. Among his theories, Zeising claimed to have found the golden ratio expressed in the arrangement of branches along the stems of plants and of veins in leaves.
The golden angle is the angle subtended by the smaller (red) arc when two arcs that make up a circle are in the golden ratio. In geometry, the golden angle is the smaller of the two angles created by sectioning the circumference of a circle according to the golden ratio; that is, into two arcs such that the ratio of the length of the smaller arc to the length of the larger arc is the same as ...
The ratio of the slant height to half the base length of the Great Pyramid of Giza is less than 1% from the golden ratio. [51] If this was the design method, it would imply the use of Kepler's triangle (face angle 51°49'), [51] [52] but according to many historians of science, the golden ratio was not known until the time of the Pythagoreans. [53]