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EXD is commonly observed in psychostimulant abusers as these drugs directly impact the dopaminergic transporters, increasing the extracellular dopamine levels. [ 21 ] [ 6 ] Amplified excitation of the dopaminergic systems can induce extreme fear and magnify both approach and avoidance behaviors. [ 6 ]
Medications are used to reverse the symptoms of extrapyramidal side effects caused by antipsychotics or other drugs, by either directly or indirectly increasing dopaminergic neurotransmission. The treatment varies by the type of the EPS, but may involve anticholinergic agents such as procyclidine, benztropine, diphenhydramine, and trihexyphenidyl.
Other hypotheses include increases in the "active" D 2 receptors (termed D 2 High) relative to the "inactive" conformation (D 2 Low). [3] The result is dopamine supersensitivity. It is thought that the psychotic symptoms within schizophrenia are primarily due to overactive dopamine activity in the mesolimbic area of the brain. [4]
Tardive dyskinesia occurs as a result of long-term use of dopamine-receptor-blocking medications such as antipsychotics and metoclopramide. [1] [2] These medications are usually used for mental illness but may also be given for gastrointestinal or neurological problems. [1] The condition typically develops only after months to years of use.
Dopamine receptors are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are prominent in the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS) and are implicated in many neurological processes, including motivational and incentive salience, cognition, memory, learning, and fine motor control, as well as modulation of neuroendocrine signaling.
Dopamine antagonists like antipsychotics or metoclopramide, which block dopamine receptors and thereby antagonize the dopaminergic effects of selegiline, could potentially reduce the effectiveness of the medication. [6] Dopamine-depleting agents like reserpine and tetrabenazine, by reducing dopamine levels, can also oppose the effectiveness of ...
By the time a person experiencing Alzheimer's has died, they have usually surpassed the level of brain damage (and associated dementia) that would be associated with sundowning. This hypothesis is, however, supported by the effectiveness of melatonin, a natural hormone, to decrease behavioral symptoms associated with sundowning. The pineal ...
Furthermore, although dopamine-inhibiting medications modify dopamine levels within minutes, the associated improvement in patient symptoms is usually not visible for at least several days, suggesting that dopamine may be indirectly responsible for the illness. [52]