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Medications are used to reverse the symptoms of extrapyramidal side effects caused by antipsychotics or other drugs, by either directly or indirectly increasing dopaminergic neurotransmission. The treatment varies by the type of the EPS, but may involve anticholinergic agents such as procyclidine, benztropine, diphenhydramine, and trihexyphenidyl.
Characteristic symptoms are increased muscle tone (dystonia, such as clubfoot) and Parkinsonian features, typically absent in the morning or after rest but worsening during the day and with exertion. Children with dopamine-responsive dystonia are often misdiagnosed as having cerebral palsy. The disorder responds well to treatment with levodopa.
Tardive dyskinesia occurs as a result of long-term use of dopamine-receptor-blocking medications such as antipsychotics and metoclopramide. [1] [2] These medications are usually used for mental illness but may also be given for gastrointestinal or neurological problems. [1] The condition typically develops only after months to years of use.
EXD is commonly observed in psychostimulant abusers as these drugs directly impact the dopaminergic transporters, increasing the extracellular dopamine levels. [21] [6] Amplified excitation of the dopaminergic systems can induce extreme fear and magnify both approach and avoidance behaviors. [6]
By the time a person experiencing Alzheimer's has died, they have usually surpassed the level of brain damage (and associated dementia) that would be associated with sundowning. This hypothesis is, however, supported by the effectiveness of melatonin, a natural hormone, to decrease behavioral symptoms associated with sundowning. The pineal ...
Clinical characteristics such as age of onset, body distribution, nature of the symptoms, and associated features such as additional movement disorders or neurological symptoms, and; Cause (which includes changes or damage to the nervous system and inheritance). [4] Physicians use these classifications to guide diagnosis and treatment.
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter in the brain, working as a chemical messenger to send signals from neuron to neuron to aid in functions like memory, movement, pleasure rewards, motivation ...
Dopamine dysregulation syndrome (DDS) is a dysfunction of the reward system observed in some individuals taking dopaminergic medications for an extended length of time. It is characterized by severely disinhibited patterns of behavior, [1] leading to problems such as addiction to the offending medication, gambling addiction, or compulsive sexual behavior, [2] along with a general orientation ...