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For example, with six executions units, six new instructions are fetched in stage 1 only after the six previous instructions finish at stage 5, therefore on average the number of clock cycles it takes to execute an instruction is 5/6 (CPI = 5/6 < 1). To get better CPI values with pipelining, there must be at least two execution units.
Generally speaking, however, complex instructions inflate the number of clock cycles per instruction because they must be decoded into simpler micro-operations actually performed by the hardware. After converting X86 binary to the micro-operations used internally, the total number of operations is close to what is produced for a comparable RISC ...
These cache misses directly correlate to the increase in cycles per instruction (CPI). However the amount of effect the cache misses have on the CPI also depends on how much of the cache miss can be overlapped with computations due to the ILP ( Instruction-level parallelism ) and how much of it can be overlapped with other cache misses due to ...
For example, building the CPU out of better, faster transistors. However, sometimes pushing one type of performance to an extreme leads to a CPU with worse overall performance, because other important aspects were sacrificed to get one impressive-looking number, for example, the chip's clock rate (see the megahertz myth).
Thus, a representation that compresses the storage size of a file from 10 MB to 2 MB yields a space saving of 1 - 2/10 = 0.8, often notated as a percentage, 80%. For signals of indefinite size, such as streaming audio and video, the compression ratio is defined in terms of uncompressed and compressed data rates instead of data sizes:
We can also measure speedup in cycles per instruction (CPI) which is a latency. First, we execute the program with the standard branch predictor, which yields a CPI of 3. Next, we execute the program with our modified branch predictor, which yields a CPI of 2.
People are often concerned about measuring the maximum data throughput in bits per second of a communications link or network access. A typical method of performing a measurement is to transfer a 'large' file from one system to another system and measure the time required to complete the transfer or copy of the file.
1×10 −1: multiplication of two 10-digit numbers by a 1940s electromechanical desk calculator [1] 3×10 −1: multiplication on Zuse Z3 and Z4, first programmable digital computers, 1941 and 1945 respectively; 5×10 −1: computing power of the average human mental calculation [clarification needed] for multiplication using pen and paper