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Psychological assistance includes encouraging the principal to commit the offense through words or gestures, [13] or mere presence as long as the principal knows that the accomplice's purpose is present to provide assistance. It is not necessary that the accomplice's acts cause or contribute to the principal's committing the crime.
If two or more people are directly responsible for the actus reus, they can be charged as joint principals (see: Common purpose). The test to distinguish a joint principal from an accessory is whether the defendant independently contributed to causing the actus reus rather than merely giving generalised and/or limited help and encouragement.
Encouraging Words is the fifth studio album by American soul musician Billy Preston, released in September 1970 on Apple Records. It was the last of Preston's two albums for the Beatles ' Apple label, after which he moved to A&M Records .
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"Encouraging" is not defined in the statute and can be considered in the same way as the previous crime of incitement. It does not matter if the encouragement or assistance has no effect. [6] In Invicta Plastics Ltd v Clare, [7] a company sold a device to detect radar traps used by the police; using such a device is illegal.
Whereas incitement can only be committed when the defendant incites the principal offender, the crime of "encouraging or assisting" includes helping an accessory. [27] Whilst a section 44 offence can be committed in relation to other inchoate offences (including itself), sections 45 and 46 cannot.
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This theory is a key concept used to explore and resolve issues that have arisen within the relationship of agents and principals, which is known as the principal-agent problem. [41] The theory is subdivided into two categories: (1) the moral hazard model and; (2) the adverse selection model. To summarise the latter, adverse selection arises ...