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Self-phase modulation (SPM) is a nonlinear optical effect of light–matter interaction. An ultrashort pulse of light, when travelling in a medium, will induce a varying refractive index of the medium due to the optical Kerr effect. [1]
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow formerly known as Uttar Pradesh Technical University (UPTU), was established by the government of Uttar Pradesh on 8 May 2000 (Act No. 1248 (2)XVII-V-I-I-19-2000 Uttar Pradesh Adhiniyam Sankhya 23 of 2000).
Faculty of Architecture, AKTU(Formerly: Lucknow College of Architecture & GCA) 2 052 Institute of Engineering and Technology(IET) 3 053 Azad Institute of Engineering & Technology 4 054 B.B.D National Institute of Tech. & Management 5 056 Babu Banarasi Das Northern India Institute of Technology 6 057
Atomic force microscopy [1] (AFM) is a type of SPM, with demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit. The information is gathered by "feeling" or "touching" the surface with a mechanical probe.
Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) is a branch of microscopy that forms images of surfaces using a physical probe that scans the specimen. SPM was founded in 1981, with the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope , an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level.
While managing R&D projects for the Army and later at GE, Putnam noticed software staffing profiles followed the Rayleigh distribution. [2]Putnam used his observations about productivity levels to derive the software equation:
SPM is derived from the compound interest formula via the present value of a perpetuity equation. The derivation requires the additional variables X {\displaystyle X} and R {\displaystyle R} , where X {\displaystyle X} is a company's retained earnings, and R {\displaystyle R} is a company's rate of return on equity.